The present practices in electro-refining of copper are shown to be the result of piecemeal and gradual improvements and innovations as metallurgists responded to changing cost pressures and the availability of new technology._x000D_
Major changes were inhibited by capital cost restraints and a reluctance to build unproven ideas into new plants._x000D_
It is suggested that the level of technology available today, combined with the greatest cost pressures the industry has known, call for fundamental re-appraisal and a questioning of widely accepted conventional practices._x000D_
Examples of the industry reaction to changing pressures are given, and directions for future developments are suggested.